What Defines an Islamic State: Symbol or Substance?
Nasaruddin Umar
(Professor of Qur’anic Exegesis, Faculty of Ushuluddin, UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta; Minister of Religious Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia)
The definition of an “Islamic State” remains controversial to this day. For example, does Indonesia fall into the category of an Islamic state or not? There are many differing views. What should be measured — its population, the existence of its leader, or the strength of Muslim influence in the country? Should the measure be whether its constitution explicitly declares Islam as the state religion, labels itself an Islamic state, or grants special privileges to Islam? It becomes even less clear when the Muslim population in a country is balanced with other religious groups. Should priority be given to symbols or substance?
Many countries are symbolically Islamic (or Muslim) states, yet the existence of their sharia is still far from the maqashid al-shari’ah (objectives of Islamic law). On the other hand, there are countries that do not explicitly declare Islam as the state religion or grant it special privileges, yet the substance of Islamic teachings and sharia can be freely practiced there.
Al-Mawardi in Al-Ahkam al-Sulthaniyyah simplified the definition of a head of state as khalifah al-nubuwwah fi hirasah al-din wa siyasah al-dunya (a successor to the Prophet in safeguarding religion and managing worldly affairs). A similar view was expressed by Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah in Igatsah Allahfan, who considered the matter of the existence of a head of state not part of creed (‘aqidah) or worship ('ibadah) but part of the domain of human ijtihad.
In the Qur’an itself, there is mention of a non-Muslim head of state or government—a sun worshiper (Q.S. al-Naml/27:24), a woman named Queen Balqis—who is praised in the Qur’an as “possessor of a great throne” (laha ‘arsyun ‘adhim/Q.S. 27:23) and whose land is described as “a good land and a forgiving Lord” (baldatun thayyibah wa rabbun ghafur/Q.S. Saba’). Her greatness is narrated at length in three surahs of the Qur’an (Saba’, al-Naml, and al-Anbiya’).
Why did she receive such remarkable praise when no prophet was given that specific designation? Prophet Solomon, who became her rival, did not receive that title. Yet Prophet Solomon had the ability to build coalitions with jinn and birds (Q.S.27:17), the ability for rapid mobility because he could “command the wind” (Q.S.21:81), the ability to explore the depths of the sea (Q.S.21:82), the ability to communicate with animals and insects (Q.S.27:18), and even the ability to cooperate with devils (Q.S.21:82).
The secret of Queen Balqis’ success, as highlighted in the Qur’an, was her ability to build political ethics in leading the people of Saba’. She practiced principles of courteous, transparent, and civilized democracy; responsible justice; genuine honesty; noble diplomacy; and exemplary leadership. Such conduct was met with courtesy from the elites and love from the people. For this group, it is preferable to be led by a non-Muslim who is Islamic in substance rather than a Muslim who is not Islamic in conduct.
Moderate groups envision that all citizens of the Republic of Indonesia should not be trapped in formal religious symbols and attributes but rather refer to the reality that if in a certain situation there is a candidate who far better fulfills the substantive criteria compared to an ideal Muslim candidate, then that substantively superior candidate should have greater rights.
However, the challenge lies in the fact that within fiqh siyasah (Islamic political jurisprudence), there is a school of thought that considers the head of state as a representation of Ulil Amr. Meanwhile, the function of Ulil Amr in fiqh siyasah is very important because it also serves as wali hakim (judicial guardian), who functions as the marriage guardian for a Muslim woman who wishes to marry but does not have a genealogical guardian (wali nasab).
Islamic jurisprudence requires that a person serving as wali hakim must be Muslim, as a condition of guardianship in Islamic Marriage Law. If this condition is violated, it results in fasakh (annulment) of the marriage. A marriage that is annulled may lead to adultery if the relationship continues.
This article was published in Kompas on Friday, February 27, 2026.